Search the Glossary by Alphabetical Listing:
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Asymmetric information—Cases in which the seller knows relevant
information about a product that the buyer does not know. In cases of
asymmetric information, resources are used less efficiently than with
perfect, symmetric information.
Bacteria—One-celled microorganisms that are
either free-living or parasitic, some of which may cause illness in humans
and/or animals.
Bacteremia—Presence of viable bacteria in the bloodstream.
BSE—Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE), also known as Mad Cow Disease, is a chronic progressive degenerative
disease affecting the central nervous system of cattle. There is
no treatment, and affected cattle die. BSE is classified as a transmissible
spongiform encephalopathy (TSE). The causative agent for BSE has
not been determined. Some believe it is a "slow virus"
or a "virino" while others believe it is a "prion"
(an aberrant form of a normal prion protein) that causes the normal
protein to conform to its aberrant shape, which leads to a cascade
of abnormal proteins accumulating in brain cells. The accumulation
of protein plaques causes cell death and leaves holes in the brain
giving a "sponge-like" appearance. The etiologic agent
is extremely resistant to destruction. BSE was first officially
recognized in the United Kingdom (UK) in November 1986. The incubation
period for BSE in cattle is from 2 to 8 years. For more information,
see:
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Case—An individual who is ill following ingestion of
food. Outbreak cases reported by CDC are determined to be contaminated
on the basis of laboratory analysis and/or epidemiological evidence.
Not all outbreak cases need be confirmed by laboratory analysis
if there is sufficient epidemiological evidence linking them to
the outbreak.
Campylobacter—Foodborne bacteria that cause
the human illness, campylobacteriosis. Eighty percent of the 2.5
million annual U.S. illnesses from this bacteria are from contaminated
food (such as poultry). It causes more illnesses each year than
any other foodborne bacteria.
Campylobacteriosis—An illness in humans caused by Campylobacter
jejuni or C. coli. campylobacteriosis ranges from
a mild illness with diarrhea lasting a day, to severe abdominal
pain, and severe diarrhea (sometimes bloody), sometimes accompanied
by fever, occasionally lasting for several weeks. The incubation
period for most cases is 2 to 5 days, and the illness usually lasts
from 2 to 10 days, depending on its severity. Although the illness
is generally regarded as a relatively mild disease, death can occur
in some cases, especially for the very young, very old, or immunocompromised.
A small percentage of cases develop Guillain-Barré Syndrome.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention—The U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), an agency
of the Department of Health and Human Services, promotes health
and quality of life by preventing and controlling disease, injury,
and disability.
Cholecystitis—Inflammation of the gall bladder.
Clostridium perfringens—C. perfringens
intoxication typically occurs 6 to 24 hours after ingestion of food
that bears large counts of this bacteria. The illness in humans
is frequently a mild gastrointestinal distress, lasting only about
a day. Deaths are uncommon.
Colonization—"Implantation and growth of a microorganism
on a host" (Dorland's Dictionary 1994).
Colony forming unit (CFU)—Unit of measurement for viable
bacteria numbers.
Consumer price index (CPI)—A measure of the average
change in prices over time in a fixed "market basket"
of goods and services purchased either by urban wage earners and
clerical workers or by all urban consumers.
Contingent valuation method—The use of surveys of individuals
to elicit their preferences, measured in monetary terms (willingness
to pay, or WTP), for a specified improvement in their health outcomes.
It circumvents the absence of markets for health outcomes by presenting
survey respondents with hypothetical markets in which they are asked
their WTP for the improvement in question.
Cost of illness (COI) method—An approach
that is used to estimate the societal costs of a particular illness
or injury in a given time frame (typically a 1-year period). The
approach typically focuses on two main types of societal costs associated
with the particular illness or injury: direct medical and non-medical
costs and indirect costs of lost productivity due to morbidity or
premature mortality.
Cross-contamination—The transfer of pathogens from
the original source (such as raw meat, poultry, or eggs) to the
cooked food or another food. This can occur, for example, if the
food preparer does not wash hands after handling raw meat or eggs,
if cooked meat is placed on the plate that held raw meat, or if
raw vegetables are cut on the same cutting board or with the same
knife used for cutting raw meat without it being washed in between
uses.
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Diarrhea—Three or more unusually frequent evacuations
of loose stools within a 24-hour period. Diarrhea may be caused
by microbial, parasitic, or viral infections, or other factors.
Direct costs*—Costs associated
with resources expended for health care (compare with indirect costs).
Does not include lost wages—see productivity loss and indirect
costs.
Direct medical costs*—The costs
of resources for medical treatment (such as the cost of a physician
visit).
Direct non-medical costs*—Costs
incurred in connection with a health intervention or illness, but
which are not expended for medical care itself (such as the transportation
costs associated with a physician visit).
Discounting*—A method for adjusting
the value of future costs and benefits to an equivalent value today
to account for time preference and opportunity cost, that is, a
dollar today is worth more than a dollar a year from now (even if
inflation is not considered).
Discount rate—A rate used in determining a present
value equivalent of a future stream of dollars. The lower the discount
rate, the higher the present value of a future stream of dollars.
Disutility costs—Costs include
all the factors leading to the diminished well-being of a patient
due to illness or premature death. Disutility costs of illness typically
measure the amount of money (or another measure of well-being) the
average patient would be willing to give up to avoid an illness
or premature death (such as lower wages received for low-risk jobs).
Disutility may include a wide range of costs, including those for
pain and suffering, inconvenience, time lost from regular activities,
and productivity losses.
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Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157—Foodborne
bacteria that cause the human illness, E. coli O157 disease.
Eighty-five percent of the 73,480 annual U.S. illnesses from this
bacteria are from contaminated food (such as ground beef).
E. coli O157 disease—Usually a mild gastrointestinal
illness that occurs 3 to 5 days after eating contaminated food.
Severe complications, however, can arise. Hemorrhagic colitis is
distinguished by the sudden onset of severe abdominal cramps, little
or no fever, and diarrhea that may become grossly bloody. Although
less than 5 percent of E. coli O157 disease cases develop
hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), it is a severe, life-threatening
illness. HUS is a disease characterized by red blood-cell destruction,
kidney failure, and neurological complications, such as seizures
and strokes. Most HUS cases are children under 5 years old, although
the feeble elderly may also be at risk.
E. coli non-O157 STEC—The foodborne bacteria,
Shiga-toxin Escherichia coli (STEC), have the same toxin as E.
coli O157 and causes similar disease. Eighty-five percent of the 36,740
annual U.S. illnesses from this bacteria are from contaminated food.
E. coli non-O157 STEC disease—Usually
a mild gastrointestinal illness that occurs 3 to 5 days after eating
contaminated food. Severe complications, however, can arise. Hemorrhagic
colitis is distinguished by the sudden onset of severe abdominal
cramps, little or no fever, and diarrhea that may become grossly
bloody. Although less than 5 percent of E. coli O157 disease
cases develop hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), it is a severe, life-threatening
illness. HUS is a disease characterized by red blood-cell destruction,
kidney failure, and neurological complications, such as seizures
and strokes. Most HUS cases are children under 5 years old, although
the feeble elderly may also be at risk.
Economies of scale—Ability of a larger plant to produce
at a lower cost a product that is identical to one produced in a
smaller plant.
Economies of scope—Ability of a manufacturing plant
to produce at least two products at lower costs than it could produce
a single product.
Endocarditis—Infection of the heart.
Externality—A situation in which action of one economic
agent affects the utility or production possibilities of another
in a way that is not reflected in the marketplace.
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FoodNet—The Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance
Network (FoodNet) is the principal foodborne disease component of
CDC's Emerging Infections Program (EIP). FoodNet is a collaborative
project of the CDC, nine EIP sites (California, Colorado, Connecticut,
Georgia, New York, Maryland, Minnesota, Oregon, and Tennessee),
the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA). The project consists of active surveillance
for foodborne diseases and related epidemiologic studies designed
to help public health officials better understand the epidemiology
of foodborne diseases in the United States.
Food Safety Consortium—The Food
Safety Consortium consists of researchers from the University
of Arkansas, Iowa State University, and Kansas State University.
The Consortium was established by Congress in 1988 through a special
Cooperative State Research Service grant. The Consortium's charge
is to conduct extensive investigation into all areas of poultry,
beef, and pork meat production, from the farm to the consumer's
table. Each of the university members of the Consortium is primarily
performing research associated with the specific animal species
for which that university is uniquely qualified: University of Arkansas,
poultry; Iowa State University, pork, and Kansas State University,
beef.
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Gastroenteritis—Inflammation of the intestine and stomach.
GI tract—Gastrointestinal tract, or digestive tract,
is the pathway for digesting food that begins at the mouth and includes,
in turn, the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, and ends with the rectum/anus. The components of the
defense mechanisms against foodborne pathogens of the GI tract include:
1) an acidic stomach, 2) an active intestinal immune system, 3)
bacterial flora in the intestine, 4) bile salts and digestive enzymes,
5) mucus, 6) and peristaltic action.
Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS)—An autoimmune
reaction of the body that affects the peripheral nerves and causes
weakness, paralysis, and occasionally death.
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Hedonic wage studies—Statistical analyses that estimate
the effect of intrinsic job characteristics, such as health risks,
fringe benefits, or autonomy, on pay.
Hemodialysis—Separation of large and small molecules
of the blood by use of selective diffusion through a semipermeable
membrane. A medical treatment used to treat kidney failure.
Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS)—A disease characterized
by kidney failure and neurological failure. HUS especially strikes
children under 5 years of age and the immunocompromised elderly.
Hemorrhagic Colitis—A clinical syndrome manifested
by bloody inflammation of the colon. This syndrome can be the result
of several diseases, including E. coli O157:H7.
Hospital discharge—The completion of an inpatient's
continuous period of stay in a hospital where the stay lasts one
night or more.
Human capital approach—A method for estimating the
impact of an individual's illness or premature death on society
by measuring the discounted value of his/her productivity loss (labor
earnings) due to morbidity or premature mortality.
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Immunocompromised—Individuals with a weakened immune
system, making them susceptible to additional infections.
Incidence—A measure of the magnitude of a disease,
usually expressed as the number of new cases of a disease per 100,000
individuals in the U.S. population in a 1-year period.
Incidence-based costs*—The total
lifetime costs of new cases of a disease or injury that occur during
a certain period of time.
Indirect costs*—The resources
forgone either to participate in an intervention or as the result
of a health condition (such as earnings forgone because of loss
of time from work).
Industry concentration—The share of production output
controlled by a certain number of the largest firms in an industry.
Economists generally use four-firm concentration ratios.
Infection—An illness or carrier state arising from
colonization of foodborne microbial pathogens in the human gastrointestinal
tract or other parts of the human body. Human antibodies that resist
these pathogens may cause chronic complications.
Infectious dose—The number of organisms that make individuals
ill or carriers. In reality, there is a probability distribution
associated with different pathogen exposure levels.
Information policy—Involves providing or requiring
that information be provided to consumers or producers about specific
product attributes, the proper use of a product, or best production
practices. Information policy includes labeling and education programs.
Isolation rate—In microbiology, the rate at which an
organism is identified in a culture.
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Joint Institute for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (JIFSAN)—JIFSAN
was established between the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) and the University of Maryland (UM) in April 1996. The Institute
is a jointly administered, multidisciplinary research and education
program and includes research components from the FDA Centers for
Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) and Veterinary Medicine
(CVM), and UM. The Institute will foster the missions of FDA and
the UM through the creation of partnerships to increase the quantity
and quality of research, which will provide the basis for sound
public health policy. It will promote food safety and human nutrition
and animal health and production through an integrated academic
and regulatory science program. This includes multidisciplinary
research, outreach and educational programs, and policy studies.
Joint Institute for Food Safety Research (the "Institute"
or JIFSR)—On July 3, 1998, President Clinton directed the
Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the Department
of Agriculture (USDA) to develop a plan to create a Joint Institute
for Food Safety Research. The Institute is to: (1) coordinate planning
and priority setting for food safety research among the two Departments,
other government agencies, and the private sector and (2) foster
effective translation of research results into practice along the
farm-to-table continuum. The ultimate goal of the Institute is to
coordinate food safety research, such that the incidence of foodborne
illness is reduced to the greatest extent feasible. The result of
the these coordinated and expanded efforts will be the more efficient
delivery of the scientific information needed to develop effective
food safety guidance, policies, and regulations in support of public
health goals.
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Labor force participation rate—The percentage of average
civilian noninstitutional population in the civilian labor force
in a year. The civilian labor force comprises all employed and unemployed
civilians ages 16 years and over in the noninstitutional population.
Life expectancy—The average remaining lifetime in years
for an individual of a particular age, given sex-specific and age-specific
death rates.
Listeria—Foodborne bacteria that cause the human
illness, listeriosis. Ninety-nine percent of the 2,518 annual U.S.
illnesses from this bacteria are from contaminated food (such as
soft cheese, ground meat, and ready-to-eat meats).
Listeriosis—A gastrointestinal illness in humans caused
by Listeria. Illness caused by the bacterium, Listeria
monocytogenes, may be either mild or severe. Milder cases are
characterized by a sudden onset of fever, severe headache, vomiting,
and other influenza-type symptoms. Severe cases can result in meningitis,
chronic illness, and death. Listeriosis may appear mild in healthy
adults and more severe in fetuses, the elderly, and the immunocompromised.
Women infected with Listeria during pregnancy may transmit
the infection to the fetus, possibly leading to spontaneous abortions
or babies born with visual, mental, or other problems. Outbreak
data show that the incubation period ranges from 3 to 70 days.
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Mad Cow Disease—(see BSE)
Meningitis—Infection of the brain or spinal tissues.
Meat and poultry irradiation—Use of X-rays, electron
beams, or gamma rays to damage or destroy living organisms that
may be present in food products. Irradiation can be used to sterilize
food for storage at room temperature, eliminate or reduce pathogens,
delay spoilage, control insect infestations, delay ripening, or
inhibit sprouting. Extensive scientific research has shown that
irradiated food is safe to eat.
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NE-165—The NE-165
regional research project does research on the impacts of changes
in strategies, technologies, consumer behavior, and policies on
the economic performance of the food system, and on how private
and public strategies influence improvement in food safety and other
quality attributes. It has over 100 members around the world, primarily
from universities and government agencies, and a core research group
at the Food Marketing Policy Center, Universities of Connecticut
and Massachusetts.
Neonate—A newborn child.
Net present value (NPV)*—The
sum that results when the discounted value of the costs of a prevention
or intervention strategy is deducted from the discounted value of
the benefits of the strategy.
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Opportunity costs*—The monetary
value of the resources used in providing a specific set of health-care
services, valued in terms of forgone alternative uses.
Outbreak data—CDC data on foodborne disease outbreaks
define an outbreak as an incident in which two or more persons experienced
a similar illness after ingestion of a common food, and epidemiologic
analysis implicated a food as the source of the illness. There are
two exceptions, botulism and chemical poisoning, in which one case
constitutes an outbreak.
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Pathogen—A disease-causing agent, such as a certain
bacterium, parasite, virus, or fungus.
Pneumonia—Acute or chronic disease characterized by
inflammation of the lungs. The disease is typically caused by bacteria,
viruses, or other agents.
Premature mortality—a) Any preventable death. b) Deaths
that occur before a specified age, often age 65, or the average
life expectancy of a certain population.
Present value—The discounted value of either the stream
of costs of a program or the benefits of a program over a specified
time horizon. This is reported in today's dollars.
Prevalence—The total number of cases of a given disease
at a particular point in time, includes new (i.e., incidence) as
well as chronic cases.
Productivity loss—The monetary value of output that
would have been produced in the absence of an illness, disability,
injury, morbidity, or premature mortality.
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Reiter's syndrome—Inflammation of the joints and sometimes
the eyes and urinary tract. Reiter's syndrome (a form of reactive
arthritis) typically lasts for 6 weeks and can go on to develop
other rheumatoid syndromes, such as rheumatoid arthritis. Reactive
arthritis is seen equally in females and males, and sometimes in
children. Almost all sexually acquired Reiter's syndrome cases are
seen in males aged 20-40 years.
Recurrent—"1. Running back, or toward the source,
2. returning after remissions" (Dorland's Dictionary 1994).
Reservoir of infection—"1. Any person, animal,
arthropod, plant, soil, or substance, or a combination of these,
in which an infectious agent normally lives and multiplies, on which
it depends primarily for survival, and where it reproduces itself
in such a manner that it can be transmitted to a susceptible host.
2. The natural habitat of the infectious agent" (Dict. of Epid.
1995, p. 146).
Resistance—"The natural ability of an organism
to resist microorganisms or toxins produced in disease" (Dorland's
Dictionary 1994).
The Risk Assessment Consortium (RAC)—RAC
consists of representatives from all of the Government agencies
with any food safety responsibilities (FDA, USDA, EPA, CDC, NMFS,
NIH, DOD). Through the RAC, the agencies will collectively work
to enhance communication and coordination among the member agencies
and promote the conduct of scientific research that will facilitate
risk assessments. Such research will assist the regulatory agencies
in fulfilling their specific food-safety risk management mandates.
Risk—The probability of an adverse event occurring.
Risk assessment policy**— Guidelines
for value judgment and policy choices which may need to be applied
at specific decision points in the risk assessment process. Risk
assessment policy setting is a risk management responsibility, which
should be carried out in full collaboration with risk assessors,
and which serves to protect the scientific integrity of the risk
assessment. The guidelines should be documented so as to ensure
consistency and transparency. Examples of risk assessment policy
setting are establishing the population(s) at risk, establishing
criteria for ranking of hazards, and guidelines for application
of safety factors.
Risk management**—The process
of weighing policy alternatives in the light of the results of risk
assessment and, if required, selecting and implementing appropriate
control options, including regulatory measures.
Risk premium—The increased wage needed to attract workers
to riskier jobs.
Risk profile**—A description
of the food safety problem and its context. Risk profiling is the
process of describing a food safety problem and its context, in
order to identify those elements of the hazard or risk relevant
to various risk management decisions. The risk profile would include
identifying aspects of hazards relevant to prioritizing and setting
the risk assessment policy and aspects of the risk relevant to the
choice of safety standards and management options.
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Salmonella (nontyphoidal)—Foodborne bacteria
that cause the human illness, salmonellosis. Ninety-five percent
of the 1.4 million annual U.S. illnesses from these bacteria are
from contaminated food (such as poultry, meat, and eggs).
Salmonellosis—An illness in humans caused by Salmonella
(nontyphoidal). Common symptoms are nausea, diarrhea, stomach pain,
and sometimes vomiting. Although the illness is generally regarded
as a relatively mild disease, death can occur in some cases, especially
for the very young, very old, or immunocompromised. Salmonellosis
usually appears 6 to 74 hours after eating contaminated food and
lasts for a day or two.
Sepsis—"Presence of disease-causing organisms
or their toxins in the blood or tissues" (Webster's Dictionary
1984). Sepsis is a syndrome of decreased blood pressure and capillary
leakage.
Septicemia—"Systemic disease caused by pathogenic
organisms and their toxins in the bloodstream" (Webster's Dictionary
1984).
Sequelae—Abnormal conditions that arise following the
acute phase of a disease. For example, kidney failure may follow
acute E. coli O157:H7 disease.
Serotypes—"A group of related microorganisms distinguished
by its composition of antigens" (Webster's Dictionary 1984).
Serotype is sometimes called serovar.
Societal perspective*—The perspective
of society as a whole. Economic analyses typically take a societal
perspective to include all benefits of a program regardless of who
receives them, and all costs regardless of who pays them.
Staphylococcus aureus—S. aureus intoxications
occur usually within 1 to 6 hours following consumption of the toxins
produced by the bacteria, but it may occur within 30 minutes. Illness
caused by S. aureus enterotoxin is characterized by severe
nausea, vomiting, cramps, and diarrhea. Although the illness generally
does not last longer than 1 or 2 days, the severity of the illness
may indicate the need for hospitalization.
Steam Pasteurization—A technology used to kill bacteria
on the surface of cattle and hog carcasses by using steam to briefly
raise the carcass surface temperature to kill pathogens. It occurs
after the evisceration stage but before final cooling.
Surveillance data—Data on individual cases of foodborne
illness that were cultured in a laboratory and reported to the CDC
surveillance system.
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Toxoplasma gondii—A protozoan parasite that
causes the illness toxoplasmosis, which may be manifested in mild
flu-like symptoms. Most people infected with the parasite do not
have any symptoms. People vary in their risk of getting sick from
this parasite. People with suppressed immune systems, such as AIDS
and cancer patients, face higher risks. One outbreak associated
with undercooked meat indicates that the incubation period ranges
from 10 to 23 days. Women infected with T. gondii during
pregnancy may transmit the infection to their fetus, possibly leading
to stillbirths or babies born with birth defects ranging from hearing
or visual impairments to mental retardation.
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Vibrio—Members of the Vibrio genus of bacteria
are responsible for several distinct illnesses. V. cholerae
is the cause of epidemic cholera. V. parahaemolyticus and
other marine Vibrios may cause gastroenteritis following the consumption
of contaminated fish or shellfish, with symptoms including diarrhea,
abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomiting. V. vulnificus may
cause severe or fatal illness in persons who eat contaminated raw
shellfish, depending on the health status of the affected individual.
Healthy individuals may experience gastroenteritis within 16 hours
of infection, but persons with chronic liver disease may be affected
by a syndrome known as primary septicemia, resulting in septic shock
and death in about half of all cases.
Virulence—The pathogenic or poisonous potential of
bacteria, fungi, or other agents.
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Willingness to pay (WTP)—A measure
of the value an individual would place on reducing risk of death
or illness. It is the maximum dollar amount the individual would
be willing to give up in a given hypothetical risk-reducing situation.
______
* These terms are from Haddix, A. C., S. M.
Teutsch, P. A. Shaffer, and D. O. Duñet (eds.). Prevention
Effectiveness: A Guide to Decision Analysis and Economic Evaluation.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 (definitions may have been
adapted).
** These terms are from the World Health
Organization website.
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