Environmental Interactions with Agricultural Production:
Grazing Lands and Environmental Quality

Overview Background Animal Agriculture and the Environment Grazing Lands and Environmental Quality Federal Laws Protecting Environmental Quality Policy Instruments for Protecting Environmental Quality Recommended Readings Recommended Data Related Links

Grazing lands are vegetative land area that can be used for the feeding of domestic animals on growing grass, legumes, and other herbaceous plants. Grazing lands encompass a broad range of land types defined by climatic zone, terrain, vegetative cover, and primary land use. Lands used for grazing may include rangelands, grazed forest lands, native grasslands, naturalized and cultivated pasture, and crop and hay lands.

Private grazing land defies easy definition, due to the diversity and multi-use nature of lands used for grazing, distinctions in private ownership and lease arrangements, and land-capability and land-use distinctions across primary sources of grazing land data. Private grazing lands generally include all privately owned, fee-title land used for grazing purposes. Grazed acreage on tribal lands and public lands under State and local jurisdiction, which may be eligible for USDA program assistance, are often subsumed under working definitions of private grazing lands.

Extent and Location of U.S. Grazing Lands

Nearly 35 percent of the total U.S. land area, or 783 million acres of combined Federal and non-Federal lands, was potentially usable for livestock grazing in 2002. This includes 587 million acres of permanent grassland pasture and rangeland, 62 million acres of cropland pasture, and 134 million acres of forested rangeland. For details, see the Major Land Uses data product.

Non-Federal grazing lands—including privately owned land, State and local publicly owned lands, and tribal lands—accounted for 577 million acres in 2002. Over 488 million acres of private and tribal lands were used for grazing purposes in 2002, including pastureland and rangeland (395.3 million acres), forested land used for pasture (31.1 million acres), and cropland (61.8 million acres). Private grazing lands are located in all States, with heavy concentrations in the Mountain and Plains regions. In the more humid Eastern States, cropland pasture represents a significant share of acreage grazed.

In the West, public lands are used for livestock grazing in designated areas. Federal grazing leases administered by the Bureau of Land Management covered 160 million acres (U.S. Department of the Interior) and USDA's Forest Service administered an additional 95 million acres of grazing land.

Significance of Grazing Lands for the U.S. Animal Sector

Grazing lands provide essential forage for the U.S. animal sector. In 1997, roughly 57 million animal-units (AUs) of 1,000 lbs of live weight were raised, in part, on forage from grazing lands. This accounted for about 60 percent of AU production on U.S. farms. Cattle, cow-calf, and calf-growing operations are the dominant grazers, with lesser acreages used for sheep, goats, horses, ponies, mules, burros, donkeys, bison, and llamas.

An estimated 707,365 animal farms had mostly pastured livestock in 1997, representing 54 percent of all farms with animals. These farms accounted for $17.2 billion in livestock sales, or 17 percent of U.S. livestock sales in 1997. Most are small operations (less than $10,000 in annual sales) that raise primarily livestock. However, a significant minority raise large numbers of animals; 10 percent of these farms had livestock sales of more than $40,000.

Other farms may also use grazing lands. Farms with few animals—raised primarily for home consumption or local markets—are likely to depend on pasturing for feed needs. Pastured livestock are more common on operations of fewer than 50 AUs. Some confined livestock farms (predominantly cattle feedlot and dairy operations) may depend on forage grazing for some animals over part of the year, and may have large numbers of pastured livestock (confined livestock may be pastured for up to 45 days per year). An increasing concentration of unconfined animals on larger operations (greater than 300 AUs) over 1982-97 mirrors a similar trend in confined animal production.

Additional Benefits of Grazing Lands

Grazing lands support activities other than livestock production that contribute to rural economies, such as hunting and fishing, wildlife viewing, and other ranch-based recreation. Fees generated from these uses supplement income for some animal producers and may help sustain operations. Grazing lands are also regarded as an integral part of the cultural heritage and identity of many rural communities.

Grazing lands, where properly managed, provide important ecological functions. Grazing lands help to maintain habitat and migration corridors for wildlife, supporting a rich biodiversity of plant and animal species. As grazing lands account for large acreages in many U.S. river basins, they are important in hydrologic processes involving streamflow, aquifer recharge, and water filtration. In addition, grazing lands sequester substantial amounts of atmospheric carbon. Potential gains from cropland conversion to grassland have been considered in the context of U.S. policy on climate change mitigation.

Grazing Lands and the Environment

Two broad areas of environmental concern involve the loss of private grazing land area and resource degradation on grazing lands.

Area Loss

Conversion of grassland for crop production and developed uses has reduced the extent of native grasslands in the U.S. by roughly 50 percent since 1700 , with significant fragmentation of remaining grassland resources. Losses have been greatest in the historic savanna and tall-grass prairies of the Midwest and Central Plains, and relatively less in the arid West where nonirrigated cropping potential is limited and much of the land is publicly owned. While the rate of loss has slowed in recent decades, area in grasslands and other grazing land resources continues to decline.

Cropland expansion has fueled much of the grassland conversion, particularly in years of strong crop demand. More recently, increases in population and income have driven substantial exurban development in grasslands. Reductions in grazing land resources nationwide, however, may mask variability in land-use coverage over time. In marginal cropping areas, cropland conversions (and reconversion to grassland) may be influenced by relative returns to crop and livestock production and changes in agricultural policies. In some locations, Federal cropland retirement initiatives have resulted in increased grassland area, which may be grazed under specified conditions.

Resource Degradation

Of the current remaining grassland resources in private ownership, much of this acreage has been degraded due to overgrazing, fire suppression, invasive species, and other factors. Degradation of the land resource is reflected in reduced forage productivity for livestock and in environmental damages, both on and off the site.

Environmental effects of livestock grazing may include excessive foraging and trampling of vegetative cover, streambank erosion, and sediment/nutrient loadings to water bodies that may harm riparian and upland habitat. Livestock grazing has been cited as a factor in the decline of threatened and endangered species under the Endangered Species Act. Of 663 species identified as affected by agricultural activity (as of September 1995), livestock grazing was a factor in 171 listings (26 percent).

Considerable policy attention has focused on animal waste management in recent years, with new Federal regulations enacted in 2003 for the largest confined animal operations. Waste from unconfined (pasture-based) operations remains largely unregulated, although it may impair local water quality. Roughly half of the manure nutrients produced on U.S. animal farms was generated by unconfined livestock in 1997, including 3.3 million tons of manure nitrogen (51 percent) and 1.0 million tons of manure phosphorus (54 percent).

Improving Grazing Systems

Increased policy attention has focused on livestock grazing systems that are environmentally and economically sustainable. Field studies suggest that grazing lands can be managed to enhance forage productivity while preserving environmental quality. Practices undertaken as part of an improved grazing system include rotational grazing to allow grass rejuvenation; fencing to restrict livestock access in sensitive areas; watering facilities to remove livestock from riparian areas; windbreaks and shelterbelts to disperse herds; manure storage facilities for temporary confinement areas; filter strips to intercept runoff from heavy-use areas; improved grass and legume cultivars; improved nutrient management practices; and integrated pest management strategies.

Producer returns may also increase from improved grazing practices. Benefits may include additional quantity and quality of forage; healthier livestock and lower veterinary costs; better monitoring of livestock, resulting in earlier problem detection; higher weaning weights; and reduced problems with noxious weeds and other undesirable plant species. In many cases, however, public incentives will be required to encourage adoption of recommended grazing practices, particularly where benefits primarily occur offsite.

Federal Support for Conservation on Private Grazing Lands

The Federal Government provides conservation information and technical assistance for private grazing lands, primarily through USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Non-Federal grazing lands constitute about half of the total land on which NRCS provides technical assistance. According to NRCS, roughly 355 million acres of private grazing lands are in need of some form of conservation treatment.

Comprehensive nutrient management plans (CNMPs), designed to minimize water quality impairment from manure nutrients, are an important element of an overall conservation plan for many animal operations. Of an estimated 257,201 farms with confined animals in 1997 that were likely to need CNMPs, roughly one-fourth had pastured animals as the dominant type. Average annual CNMP costs per farm with pastured livestock were estimated at $1,450.

The Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), introduced in 1996 and extended under the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (2008 Farm Act), provides technical and financial assistance to address natural resource concerns on working farms and ranches. Cost-share and incentive payments under 5- to 10-year contracts are available for eligible practices in an approved conservation plan. Sixty percent of EQIP funding under the 2008 Farm Act is targeted to livestock production, with improved grazing systems as an important element. From 1997 through 2007, more than $76.3 million in EQIP cost-sharing payments were approved for grazing land practices, accounting for approximately 12 percent of total practice payments under the program.

The 2008 Farm Act includes several other programs that support conservation on grazing lands:

• The Grassland Reserve Program (GRP) targets grazing operations on private grasslands. The GRP, administered jointly by NRCS and the Farm Service Agency (FSA), was authorized in 2002 and extended under the 2008 Farm Act. The program is designed to preserve grasslands for livestock grazing and other uses. Enrollment options include permanent easements with a single upfront payment and long-term rental agreements (10, 15, and 20 years) with annual payments. An approved grassland resource management plan is required for all enrolled lands, with cost-sharing provided for the use of approved restoration practices.

• The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) administered by FSA since 1985, targets removal of environmentally sensitive lands from agricultural production under 10- to 15-year lease agreements. Much of the CRP enrollment involves marginal croplands in grassland areas of the Plains. Enrolled lands are planted to native grasses and other vegetative cover, and pasturing is permitted (subject to reduced CRP payments) as part of an approved conservation plan.

• The Conservation Stewardship Program (CStP), which replaces the Conservation Security Program administered by NRCS since 2002, provides financial and technical assistance to farmers and ranchers recognized as exemplary land stewards. Pasture and rangeland accounted for more than 40 percent of total acres approved for contracts in FY 2008.

• The Farmland Protection Program (FPP), administered by NRCS since 1996 (referred to as Farm and Ranchland Protection Program under the 2002 Farm Act), helps maintain working cropland and grazing lands by providing matching funds to State, tribal, and local governments, as well as nongovernmental organizations, for acquiring conservation easements.

• Conservation of Private Grazing Lands (CPGL) program, administered by NRCS since 1996, authorizes technical and educational assistance for conservation and enhancement of private grazing lands.

Factors Affecting Conservation Adoption
on Private Grazing Lands

Returns to ranching in some areas may limit investment in conservation practices, particularly for smaller operations with limited capital. Over 1998-2007, average returns above total costs for cow-calf operations in the U.S. were considerably less than returns to wheat production. Conservation adoption incentives may be inadequate under lower returns to livestock production. This is particularly true where offsite benefits are not captured by the operator and landowner, as in the case of measures designed to protect habitat. Incentives may also be limited for lands grazed under a lease agreement or informal arrangement, where the operator does not capture long-term benefits.

USDA farm programs have historically supported returns to crop producers through price and income supports and mitigation of crop risk. Farm support payments have largely been decoupled from production since 1996, but certain payments (such as marketing loan benefits) continue to be linked to crop production. Crop insurance subsidies and ad hoc disaster assistance may further stabilize income of crop producers. Where USDA programs (marketing loan benefits, crop insurance and ad hoc disaster assistance) enhance crop returns relative to livestock grazing in marginal cropland areas, program incentives may create a marginal unintended consequence of encouraging grassland conversion to crop production and discouraging reversal to grasslands.

Policy mechanisms for conservation on private grazing lands are largely nonregulatory. While large confined animal operations are regulated as a point-source for waste discharge, onsite environmental effects of grazing are more diffuse and consequently less subject to mandatory controls. Adoption of conservation measures on grazing lands has relied largely on technical assistance and voluntary incentives, without regulatory or compliance mechanisms to ensure environmental standards.

The proliferation of ranchettes (subdivisions of large rural tracts) in many areas represents a further challenge for grazing land conservation. Conservation concerns can be particularly significant, as smaller land holdings may be overstocked with animals relative to carrying capacity and manure-nutrient uptake. As owners do not generally depend on livestock for income, financial incentives may be less effective in encouraging improved grazing systems. Effective strategies may require coordination of conservation activities across multiple landowners.

Many Western ranches use a mix of Federal, State, and private lands for livestock grazing over the course of a year. Access to public lands is often critical to providing private parcels adequate time to recover within a rotational grazing regime. For much of the West, the success of conservation measures on private grazing lands may be linked to grazing policies for public lands.